Throughout history, man has portrayed his surroundings and the characteristics of the land as information in either graphical form, stories, songs or dance.

In western countries, this information is displayed in the form of a topographic map. These maps exhibit specific detailed characteristics of land information in a graphical form, presented in a clear and unambiguous way.

1861 to 1880: The State's first topographic map

The first topographic map produced for the Colonial Government in Queensland was prepared in 1866 by Lieutenant Edward Cave Owen from the Defence Force. This map covered the township of Fort Lytton and adjacent country. 

 

 

Lieutenant Edward Cave Owen

 

1881 to 1900: Maps resulting from a threat of war

After Owen's original topographic map, maps of the Eagle Farm area were produced in 1889. This was followed by maps of the Cleveland-Wellington Point area in 1890.

These were requested as a result of the British fear of Russian expansion in the Pacific region, especially into her Australian colonies. 

By 1885 Queensland's first gun boat, the Gayundah, had arrived to protect the colony. However, tensions between Great Britain and Russia abated and the Russians did not come.

Oblique view of Brisbane, 1888

1901 to 1920: Goldfields portrayed topographically

During the early 1900s, the Department of Mines prepared detailed plans of the Gympie goldfield leases to serve the demand of lessees striving to make their fortunes.

 

 

1909 topographic map of the Gympie goldfields

 

First military maps
In most countries the army pioneered topographic mapping because it provided them with crucial military capabilities.

Queensland was settled without military conflict and for a long time there was no real external military threat. As a result of the lack of military intervention, it was only the explorers of the day who produced topographic maps to portray their discoveries. 

However, with the declaration of World War I in 1914, urgent requests for topographical surveys of Queensland ports and environs likely to be attacked were made. 

1921 to 1950: States begin preparation of topographic maps

There was a lull in topographic map production between the two world wars. However with the onset of war in 1939, there was again high interest in topographic mapping by the army. It reached new heights with the threat of Japanese invasion.

 

Sample of a 1935 topographic map

In 1942, 3 years after Australia entered the Second World War and 1 year after Japan and the United States entered, the US Army Corps requested mapping coverage of Cairns, North Queensland.

In the same year, contour mapping determined from parallax bar readings using radial line plottings was introduced. During this period, the majority of the mapping effort was directed towards the preparation of military maps. ^{Lines JD 1992}

Shortly after this, Australian survey components of the army moved to Queensland to map Maryborough, Bundaberg and Fraser Island.

National Mapping Council
In 1945, the National Mapping Council was established.

It was determined that the Commonwealth Government and the Department of Defence would be responsible for a national topographic series and other small scale products (1:50 000 and smaller). This included 1:250 000 general reference topographic maps. 

The map series of larger scales (larger than 1:50 000) were to be at the discretion of the States. The council was to oversee the states and ensure there was no duplication. This ended the army's monopoly on generating topographic maps. 

In Queensland, topographic mapping was designed to complement the rapid development of the state's post-war infrastructure boom. It was aligned with a strong cadastral tradition.

The following year, the second meeting of the Council was held in Adelaide. The discussion concerned specifications and allocation of aerial photography, geodetic triangulation, hydrographic surveys, guiding specifications for topographic mapping and general standards of map systems, projection, scales, and symbols.

1951 to 1985: Survey Office establishes a topographic section

The topographic mapping activities of the Survey Office commenced after World War II with the establishment of the Topographic (Aerial Survey) Section.

In 1959, Cabinet authorised expansion of the Topographic Branch with the formation of three survey parties using modern EDM and additional office staff and equipment.

In 1962, the systematic topographic mapping of Queensland commenced using techniques developed during the war. The title of the first map published was Mirani D and was drawn at a scale of 1:31 680.

By 1966, the Branch consisted of a staff of 40 with 11 stereoplotting machines.

Project area and standard mapping
Initially, project areas in the 1960s were considered over areas of economic development. This included the brigalow clearing scheme, large mining ventures of central Queensland, and major irrigation infrastructure in the Burdekin River basin.

This ad hoc approach of project mapping in the 60s and early 70s evolved into a standard mapping program in 1977. This was for the purpose of utilising a consistent base format to meet the requirements of all scale mapping.

Orthophoto maps
In 1977 monotone orthophoto maps began to be produced at a scale of 1:10 000. These were enhanced with cadastral and property information. The first maps covered the 1:100 000 areas of Caboolture, Esk and Ipswich and were available as printed copies. 

All future orthophoto maps at 1:10 000 were sold as dyeline copies. Colour enhanced orthophotos at 1:25 000 were produced as duotones in 1979. This process then evolved into four colour topographic image maps in the early 1980's.   

Methods of production
Two methods were employed simultaneously for a number of years to produce topographic maps: 

• Firstly, those compiled using pen and ink were drawn at a scale of 1:16 667. They were then reduced two thirds at final negative stage for an output print scale of 1:25 000. 

• The second method involved a previously prepared fair drawing which was photographically transferred onto a stud-registered negative emulsion. The contours and other linework were then scribed over precisely on separate overlays using sapphire tips specially machined to different widths. The sapphire tip lifted the emulsion, resulting in a new negative. This did away with the earlier positive generation. 
  This process was done at a scale of 1:25 000 and therefore required no photographic reduction at the final negative stage. Over the ensuing 3 or 4 years, scribing totally replaced pen and ink work.

Adhesive backed type which was used for all nomenclature and miscellaneous text, was affixed to predetermined stud-registered clear overlays according to final print colour. A negative was then generated from each overlay. 

Halftone screen work was produced via the process of cutting a mask to the desired shapes on a rubylith overlay. This was then exposed together with a screen overlay photographically for each process colour.

Digital mapping is born
The early 1980's saw the commencement of an upheaval of major proportions in the way topographic mapping was undertaken and executed. 

Digital capture techniques completely replaced all manual forms of mapping. Map production procedures were revised accordingly.

1986 to the present: The digital march forward

In the late 1980s and 1990s, an integrated acquisition framework of all spatial information was incorporated into the Queensland Spatial Information Infrastructure. This fell within the topographic data capture program.

Key datasets included geodetic control network, aerial photography, topographic data, and place names.

Scan digitised mapping
Procedures for capturing digital topographic data were first undertaken in the mid 1990s.

Photogrammetric plots each containing twelve control points were scan digitised externally. The resultant raster image was edited, filtered, cleaned and converted to two dimensional vector data using specialised software. This data was then manipulated into three dimensional software to facilitate the height component. Styles were applied within the software and topographic maps were generated.  

Double-sided product
The 1:100 000 areas of Allora and Stanthorpe were the first areas covered by 1:25 000 double-sided topographic mapping. These were a new innovation released in 2000 and showed a traditional vector line map on one side, combined with an image map on the reverse. 

Split representation of a double-sided topo map

 

They were, however, discontinued in 2003 due to the extra time and cost incurred as well as a view to future provision of 'seamless data'.

As a result, topographic maps produced today are vector line maps only and formatted to a predetermined coverage. Future output may, however, be formatted to individual customer requirements on demand.

A wider range of map output mediums
In 1997 Australia as an entirety was covered by 1:250 000 topographic mapping on CD, by the federal mapping agency, NATMAP. 

In early 2005, the Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Water made available their complete 1:25 000 topographic coverage on CD as a complementary product. This product is titled 'Sunmap Raster' and complements the existing paper-based output. The topographic data can be georeferenced and viewed on a desktop computer or handheld GPS device as shown in the image.

Emphasis toward natural resource management
Although the standard sheet system has been maintained, the emphasis of mapping focus has changed to one based on community needs.

The impact of human development and encroachment on sensitive areas, necessitates a close watch on the environment via remote sensing and a sophisticated topographic mapping service.

Natural resource management and its associated environmental issues have been pre-eminent in planning the areas to be mapped.

 

Further current topographic information:

Topographic mapping
Queensland topographic and orthophoto map coverage
Digital Topographic data
Sunmap Raster